Literacy development stages to support instruction and assessment

Literacy development stages to support instruction and assessment is a comprehensive and concise description of literacy development from emergent literacy to highly advanced literacy. There are five stages in the framework. Adult learners in foundational learning programs are likely working in the middle three stages (i.e. Stages 1, 2 and 3). Learners likely don't progress through all stages and could meet their goals within one or two stages. But educators need the bigger picture so they can situate learners and plan instruction. Descriptions of emergent literacy (Stage 0) and advanced disciplinary literacy (Stage 4) help educators gain a comprehensive understanding of literacy development.

Aligned with each stage are several OER assessments that you can use during intake and learning sessions.

Five stages of literacy development

Stage 0 - Emergent literacy with a focus on language experimentation and print awareness

At this stage language-rich interaction and experimental engagement with print form the foundation of literacy. Adults, similar to children, use their oral language as a basis for literacy. They build oral vocabulary and develop phonological awareness through social interaction, rhymes, stories and dialogic reading. Literacy emerges gradually through exposure to books, environmental print and early writing attempts.

Instructional strategies

Build oral language and early print awareness through dialogic read-alouds, storytelling and language experimentation.
Develop phonological awareness (rhymes, syllables, beginning sounds) and letter knowledge through verse, games and manipulatives. Model the connection between spoken and written language through shared writing, drawing, labeling and everyday functional texts (lists, notes, captions with photos).
Use photo books and language experience stories, repetitive stories, rhymes and environmental print (signs, labels).

Thinking and discussion to support reading and writing

Focus conversation and discussion on the following:

Story and event retelling
Identifying characters/events
Predicting from pictures.`

Observable reading abilities

Text types: labels, captions, lists, simple messages, narratives---all connected to drawings and photos.
Sentence / language complexity: short patterned sentences and predictable structures.
Vocabulary: depends on oral English abilities; the aim is to develop thousands of spoken words.
Word recognition / decoding: developing print awareness (tracking print, recognizing letters, noticing punctuation); early phonological awareness (rhymes, syllables, beginning sounds).

Observable writing abilities

Text types: labels, captions, lists, simple messages, narratives---all connected to drawings and photos.
Sentence structures: patterned oral frames (e.g., I like…, I see…).
Vocabulary: personal and environmental words drawn from everyday experience.
Punctuation: emerging awareness of capitals and periods through modeling.
Spelling: developmental progression from scribbling → controlled scribbling → letter strings → early phonetic spelling representing salient sounds. Adults might avoid scribbling and carefully copy letters instead.

Stage 1 - Initial reading and writing with a focus on decoding, basic reading and sound-letter relationships

Adults, similar to children, must learn the alphabetic principle and begin decoding simple texts. Reading is supported by systematic phonics instruction combined with high-frequency word recognition and guided reading practice. This stage is equivalent to grades K to 3.

Instructional strategies

Provide systematic phonics instruction (letter–sound correspondences, blending, segmentation) supported by decodable texts and guided reading.
Develop sentence construction and basic writing conventions through interactive writing and short compositions.
Build sight-word vocabulary and reinforce reading–writing connections through repeated reading, partner reading, and structured word study.
Use decodable texts, predictable readers, simple narrative and informational texts with a controlled difficulty range from grades one to three.

Thinking and discussion to support reading and writing

Focus conversation and discussion on the following:

Literal comprehension of simple narratives
Answering basic 5Ws questions about people, places, things and events
Simple ordering.

Observable reading abilities

Sentence / language complexity: short simple sentences with controlled vocabulary (e.g., The cat ran.).
Vocabulary: expanding sight-word vocabulary and topic words.
Word recognition / decoding: decoding phonically regular words (CVC patterns); blending sounds; increasing recognition of high-frequency words; listening comprehension often exceeds reading comprehension.

Observable writing abilities

Text types: labels, captions, lists, simple messages, narratives---all connected to drawings and photos.
Sentence structures: short simple sentences expressing one idea.
Vocabulary: growing bank of high-frequency and familiar topic words.
Punctuation: capitals at sentence beginnings; periods sometimes used correctly.
Spelling: phonetic spelling representing most consonants; emerging vowel representation; increasing correct spelling of common words
Length: writing begins to extend from sentences toward short paragraphs.

Stage 2 - Reading and writing to learn with a focus on fluency, comprehension and connecting knowledge to literacy

At this stage, learners consolidate decoding and begin reading with increasing fluency and comprehension. Spelling shifts from purely phonetic strategies toward pattern-based spelling (word families). Learners use their knowledge to support literacy development and build new knowledge through reading and writing. This stage is equivalent to grades 4 to 8.

Instructional strategies

Consolidate reading fluency and automatic word recognition through varied texts and repeated reading.
Teach orthographic patterns and spelling conventions alongside explicit comprehension strategies (summarizing, identifying main ideas, inference, text structure).
Develop paragraph writing and multi-sentence texts through writing workshops emphasizing planning, drafting, revising, and expanding academic vocabulary.
Use short chapter books, plain language news sites (e.g. CBC, CTV), sites designed for middle school students focused on science, history, politics, civics, legal issues or health with a controlled difficulty range from grades four to eight.

Thinking and discussion to support reading and writing

Focus conversation and discussion on the following:

Summarizing, identifying main ideas
Organizing thoughts and texts with graphic organizers (i.e. cause and effect, compare and contrast)
Making simple inferences (read between the lines about character emotions and motivations, author’s purpose, tone and conventions used).

Observable reading abilities

Sentence / language complexity: longer sentences with conjunctions and descriptive phrases.
Vocabulary: increasing vocabulary breadth through reading and instruction; introduction to academic terms.
Word recognition / decoding: automatic recognition of many words; decoding multisyllabic words; reading and spelling increasingly guided by orthographic patterns.

Observable writing abilities

Text types: narratives, reports, explanations, messages or emails.
Sentence structures: simple sentences plus emerging compound sentences.
Vocabulary: expanding descriptive, current events vocabulary.
Punctuation: consistent end punctuation; early use of commas.
Spelling: conventional spelling of many words; growing knowledge of common spelling patterns (e.g., sh, ch, ee).
Length: writing expands from sentences to paragraphs and short texts.

Stage 3 - Specialized reading and writing with a focus on developing domain specific knowledge for work, school and to manage personal circumstances

Literacy is a tool for building knowledge in specific domains (academic, work and institutional---legal, healthcare, housing). Adults encounter complex texts and must integrate comprehension strategies with vocabulary, conceptual understanding and analytical thinking. This stage is equivalent to secondary school (grades 9 to 12).

Instructional strategies

Teach disciplinary and domain specific reading and writing practices, including analyzing arguments, interpreting evidence and synthesizing information from multiple texts.
Develop morphological knowledge and subject-specific vocabulary.
Use inquiry projects, structured discussions and note-taking to support multi-paragraph writing such as explanations, reports and essays.
Use textbooks, reference materials, literature, essays, more in depth news articles, encyclopedia entries, multimedia texts, etc. with a controlled difficulty range from grades nine to 12+.

Thinking and discussion to support reading and writing

Focus conversation and discussion on the following:

Interpreting ideas
Synthesizing information
Analyzing arguments
Evaluating and integrating evidence to support claims
Making more complex inferences (read between the lines about themes, use of symbols and metaphors, genres such as satire, thriller, humour and persuasive techniques).

Observable reading abilities

Sentence / language complexity: complex sentences with clauses and varied academic syntax.
Vocabulary: growth of academic and discipline-specific vocabulary; exploration of morphology and figurative language.
Word recognition / decoding: fluent decoding assumed; readers rely on morphological knowledge and contextual cues to understand unfamiliar words.

Observable writing abilities

Text types: multi-paragraph narratives, explanations, reports, essays, multimedia presentations such as a community action plan, agenda and minutes.
Sentence structures: varied sentence length; compound and complex sentences using clauses and phrases.
Vocabulary: expanding domain (i.e. sector, industry, community) and discipline-specific (i.e. history, science, literature, mathematics) vocabulary.
Punctuation: consistent use of commas, quotation marks, and apostrophes.
Spelling: morphological awareness (prefixes, suffixes) and less common letter patterns (e.g., tion, ph)
Length: writing expands to structured essays and extended texts.

Stage 4 - Critical and theoretical knowledge using disciplinary concepts, frameworks and methods

Literacy becomes discipline-specific and analytical. Adults interpret complex texts, critique information, and construct arguments using evidence. This stage is equivalent to post-secondary education and university.

Instructional strategies

Develop advanced disciplinary literacy through research, analysis, and argumentation.
Teach students to read scholarly and technical texts, evaluate sources and synthesize evidence.
Support the production of analytical essays, research papers, and professional texts, emphasizing rhetorical structure, audience awareness and precision of vocabulary and syntax.
Use scholarly articles, research papers, technical and scientific reports, complex literature, disciplinary texts from various fields of work and study.

Thinking and discussion to support reading and writing

Focus conversation and discussion on the following:

Critical interpretation
Synthesis of multiple sources
Evaluation of evidence, arguments and perspectives
Integration of evidence and arguments
Making conceptual inferences and intertextual connections related to epistemology and schools of thought.

Observable reading abilities

Sentence / language complexity: dense academic syntax and specialized discourse structures.
Vocabulary: extensive vocabulary including technical and domain-specific terminology.
Word recognition / decoding: automatic word recognition; strategic use of morphology, etymology and disciplinary knowledge.

Observable writing abilities

Text types: analytical essays, research papers, persuasive arguments, professional or multimedia texts such as a case study, business plan or analytical report.
Sentence structures: strategic use of simple, compound, and complex sentences for rhetorical effect.
Vocabulary: precise disciplinary vocabulary and nuanced word choice.
Punctuation: strategic use of advanced punctuation (e.g., commas, colons, quotation marks).
Spelling: extensive orthographic knowledge enabling accurate spelling of complex and technical vocabulary.
Length: determined by publication, thesis requirements, audience needs, etc.

Stages framework overview

Literacy development framework

Aligned OER assessments

Reading

Discussion

Writing

Phonological skills

Framework development

Rather than rely on institutionally defined grade or reporting levels, this framework is organized around observable phases of literacy development. These phases were first described by Jeanne Chall more than 40 years ago. Her Stages of Reading Development remains a foundational model for understanding, assessing and teaching reading.

Although originally developed to describe children’s reading development, Chall’s stages are equally relevant for adults. Both children and adults must master a complex mix of phonological skills, sentence construction and vocabulary development using oral language and background knowledge.

To better reflect adult learning contexts, we made minor adjustments to the language of Chall’s framework and incorporated more explicit descriptions of writing development using other stage-based frameworks from The Literacy Bug and The Balanced Literacy Diet.

Use of grade level equivalencies

While the stages framework doesn't use institutionally defined grade or reporting levels for the main categories, it does use them to provide some supplemental support. Grade level equivalencies are used to:

Make a connection between adult foundational learning and the education system (i.e. elementary, secondary and post-secondary education)
Support communication with policymakers and the public
Make it easier to locate appropriate learning resources
Facilitate the use of quantitative measures of text difficulty, helping you select, adapt and evaluate reading materials.

When communicating with learners, use terms such as initial reading and writing, reading and writing to learn, and specialized reading and writing or more simply beginner, intermediate and advanced.

Alignments with other frameworks including the OALCF

Alignments between frameworks are challenging if not impossible to do in a rigorous way. All literacy frameworks have design differences based on their

Purpose (Is the framework used primarily for accountability or instruction?)
Domains of use (Is the framework primarily for employment, everyday literacy uses or academic literacy or more general?)
Underpinning theoretical basis (Was the framework derived from descriptions of international testing levels, general understandings of communicative practices or observational studies?)
Level of abstraction (Is the framework primarily a conceptual description or does it describe how people actually learn or what they actually do?)
Various tests that are developed using the framework.

As a result, frameworks such as the Canadian Language Benchmarks, the Ontario Adult Literacy Curriculum Framework and Skills for Success are challenging to compare. Superficially, their descriptors sometimes seem similar. However, once all design elements are considered, particularly the test tools constructed using the frameworks, alignments are nearly impossible. Attempts to make alignments between the frameworks, based on outcomes, standards or competency statements alone, are meaningless.

Important assumptions about the learners

The stages framework is specifically designed for adults who are already fluent in English—either as their first language or as an additional language they use regularly. It does not apply to adults learning to speak English as a second language (ESL) who are also developing literacy skills in English and lack a strong literacy foundation in their first language. In other words, the stages approach assumes a solid base in English oral language, and is not intended for ESL literacy learners.

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